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发信人: sucky (这念/'suki/,不要念错哦), 信区: material
标 题: 材科讲义(3)
发信站: 听涛站 (2001年06月06日18:19:52 星期三), 站内信件
Chapter 3. Solidification and Crystallization
§1. Introduction
1. Engineering importance
· A process for producing most metallic materials and semiconductors
· Happens in most ceramic materials
· Critical in control of distribution of elements, defects, and size of gra
ins or phases
· General methods:
ingot casting (钢锭生产) and foundry casting (铸造)
· New techniques:
Continuous casting (连铸) , Field application (场处理)
Inoculation (孕育处理), containerless casting (e.g acoustic)
Rapid solidification (激冷凝固)
zone refinement (区域熔炼)
directional casting (定向生长)
Single-crystal growth (单晶生长)
2. Structure of liquid metals
· Short-range order
(small close-packed clusters => embryos)
3. General process
Nucleation & growth
§2. Crystallization of Pure Metals
1. Homogeneous nucleation (经典成核理论)
1) nucleation barrier (形核功)
driving force per mole:
(P327)
free energy change per nucleus (晶核)
DG = -DGvV + gSLA
Assume that gSLis isotropic, and nucleus is spherical with radius = r
· Energy barrier (能垒) caused by gSL, at
· Critical radius (临界半径)
2) nucleation rate
Assumption: An embryo becomes a nucleus by one
additional atom.
No. of equilibrium embryos that reach the size of
In Boltzmann's distribution
: total number of atoms
: frequency of formation of a stable nucleus by add one atom to an embryo
activation energy
probability of an atom to join the nucleus
surface area of the nucleus
vibration frequency of the atoms
(p491 equ(9-10), 书中错)
2. Heterogeneous nucleation
Vhom 1 Vhet
Affecting factors:
· DT
· nature of nucleation sites (shape, roughness, number, gsm - gLm, interfac
ial structure, segregation)
· overheating
· inoculation treatment
3. Growth of pure solids
1) macroscopic approach
l dT/dx > 0: stable planar interfaces
l dT/dx < 0: development of thermal dendrite
l stability of interfaces (DT, g )
2) microscopic approach
l equilibrium number of vacancies p496
DU = pbe/2 = [nZ'(1-n/Na)/2] ′ Lm/(NaZ/2)
= Lmx(1-x)Z'/Z = RTmαx(1-x)
x = n/Na (molar fraction of surface atoms)
α = LmZ'/(RTmZ) = SmZ'/(RZ)
TDS = -RT[xlnx +(1-x)ln(1-x)]
DG/RTm= αx(1-x) + RT[xlnx +(1-x)ln(1-x)]
l structure of L/S interfaces
microscopically rough when α<2,
Z'/(RZ) " 0.05, most metals Sm " 10 p488
microscopically smooth when α>5,
stepped surface (Si, Ge, Ca) α
l anisotropic ability to receive atoms
crystallography dependent
3) 1D models of growth
l continuous: v1 = MDG = k1DT (DG = LmDT/Tm)
l lateral: DG = -a2bDGv + 4abg
In condition of dDG/da = 0
a* = 2g/DGv, DG* = 2g2bTm/LmDT
v2 = k2exp(-B/DT)
l spiral: r = Aq
A = 2r* (r =A/2 at q = 0)
l = 2pA = 4pr* μ 1/DT
v3 = v1(a/l) = k3DT2
l combined effect
§3. Growth of single phase from liquid alloys
1. Partition coefficient: k = xS/xL (分配系数)
Assuming phase field boundary to be straight line
2. Special cases of 1D growth
l Equilibrium freezing
l Complete liquid mixing, with no diffusion in solid
(CL - CS)dz = (l - z)dCL
boundary condition z = 0, CL = C0
Scheil eqn: CL = C0fL(ko-1)
Cs = koC0(1- fs)(ko-1)
where fs = z/l, fl = 1- fs
also called non-equilibrium lever rule, p501
l Steady-state diffusion controlled freezing
initial transient, steady state, final transient
初始瞬态 稳态 终止瞬态
At steady state: CL(x - Rdt, t) = CL(x, t + dt)
dC at x during dt, due to interface migration is
CL(x - dx, t) - CL(x, t) = -(C/x)dx = -(C/x)Rdt
dC at x during dt, due to diffusion is
CL(x, t + dt) - CL(x, t) = (C/t)dt = D(C2/x2)dt
Solved from DC2/x2 = -RC/xdt, at boundary conditions:
x = 0, CL= C0/k0 and x = :, CL= C0
CL(x) = C0[ 1+ (1 - k0)/k0)exp(-Rx/D)]
D/R = characteristic width, dCL/dxx=0 = (C0/k0 - C0)/(D/R)
l Freezing with partial mixing in liquid
(convection effect, boundary layer approach)
Assume:
(Cs)i= k0(CL)i, (CL)i= k'(CL)b, (Cs)i= ke(CL)b, (CL)i= kL(CL)x
In analogy to steady-state
kL = C0/CL(x) = 1/[ 1+ ((1 - k0)/k0)exp(-Rx/D)]
ke = k0/[k0 + (1 - k0)exp(-Rd/D)]
In analogy to Scheil eqn for complete liquid mixing,
CL = C0fL(ke-1)
Cs = koC0(1- fs)(ke-1)
l Comparison
l zone refinement
3) Constitutional supercooling 成分(组分)过冷
(a mile stone progress)
At equilibrium TL = TA - mCL
Tb = TA - mC0 and Ti = TA - mCL/k0
Tb - Ti = mCL/k0 - mC0
Assume at steady state
TL = TA - mC0[ 1+ (1 - k0)/k0)exp(-Rx/D)]
Critical gradient dTL/dx)x = 0 = [mC0(1 - k0)/k0]R/D
= (Tb - Ti)/(D/R) p504
D/R = characteristic width
l cellular and dendritic solidification due to constitution
supercooling and relevant segregation
§4.Eutectic solidification
1. Morphology
l normal eutectic structure
lamellar or rod-like, usually in metallic systems
l abnormal
various structure, usually with smooth interfaces
2. Nucleation (p366-367)
Fact: two single crystals in one eutectic colony
Model: nucleation of leading phase
bridge mechanism
3. Effect of relative volume fraction on morphology
Provided isotropic gαβ, lamella when Vα > l/p (p367-368)
4. Effect of supercooling on the interlamellar spacing
l driving force due to Gibbs Thomson effect
DG(l) = -DG(:)Vm + 2gαβVm/l
l critic spacing l* = 2gαβ(Te/DHDT0)
5. Maximum growth rate
Assume DC = DC0(1 - l*/l), and DC0 μ DT0
The rate is diffusion control
R = k1DDC/l
= k2DDT0(1 - l*/l)/l
R = Rmax = k3DDT02 μ 1/l*2, when l = 2l*
Robs μ 1/lobs2
6. Cellular eutectic solidification
§5. Control and solidification of ingot
1. Formation of 3 zones
Chill zone 激冷(细晶)区, Columnar zone 柱状晶区
Center equiaxed zone 中心等轴晶区
2. Control of ingot structure
l Grain size control: DT, , inoculation, overheating,
with field applications (vibration, alternating revolution, electric/magneti
c, ultrasonic
l Segregation: macroscopic (gravity effect)
microscopic (dendritic, cellular, etc.)
l Porosity: gas bubbles, volume shrinkage, etc.
l Inclusions: slag, products of deoxidation
§6. Summary (self study)
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