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标 题: 可视化材料学概论概诉
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Chapter 1 - Overview
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Materials Science and Engineering forms the bedrock for the engineering disc
iplines, because the structures, components, and devices that engineers desi
gn and use must be made out of something, and that is a material. The proper
ties of the materials that are available define and limit the capabilities t
hat the device or structure can have, and the techniques that can be used to
fabricate it. Selecting the "best" material is usually a difficult task, re
quiring tradeoffs between different material properties (including cost).
But the repertoire of available materials has expanded considerably in the l
ast few decades, and is likely to continue this proliferation in the future.
For most of mankind's history, the available materials were few and essenti
ally natural, such as clay for bricks and pottery, wood and stone for tools
and construction, natural fibers (either from plants or animal hair) for cor
ds and textiles, skins for containers and clothing. The ability to modify na
tural materials, extract useful materials from natural resources (which ofte
n required achieving high temperatures), or to combine them in new ways, bro
ught new possibilities. Anthropologists study the material artefacts of past
civilizations to understand how they were fabricated (there is a field of r
esearch called archaeomaterials), and in turn to gain insight into the level
of technology and sophistication of the culture. The role of materials in t
he advance of civilization and culture is powerfully summarized by the fact
that it is the name of each dominant new material that has been used to desc
ribe the culture - the "stone" age, the "bronze" age, the "iron" age, and so
forth. Articles and editorials frequently appear debating whether ours is t
he "silicon" age, the "plastic" age, or something else. Arguably, we are now
in the age of "many materials."
An appreciation of the important materials characteristics, the connection b
etween the behavior of the material in its intended design setting and the "
stuff" the object is made from (and how it is made), is important to every e
ngineer, even if they will never create a new material but simply choose fro
m standard and widely available ones. I would personally like to think that
such an appreciation is important to every educated person, since everyone i
n their daily lives constantly uses an enormous variety and range of differe
nt objects, and will have a better understanding of how things work (and why
they sometimes fail) by knowing more about the materials from which they ar
e made.
This is a message that the consumer can't really escape. Advertising on tele
vision contains some wonderful materials science messages. Automobile compan
ies discuss corrosion resistant panels (achieved by plating one metal onto a
nother - see chapter 20), or show how a polymer coating applied to the paint
can resist damage from road debris. Corning shows how its glass ceramics (s
ee Chapter 14) make dinner plates and cookware that are exceptionally strong
and chip-resistant. History comes into play. For example, GE has shown a so
mewhat idealized version of how Lucite, an acrylic plastic, was discovered b
y accident. Dupont has their engineers and scientists describe the invention
(or discovery) of Teflon and Freon, and speculate about some of the possibl
e uses for such materials. A chemical company, BASF, emphasizes that "we don
't make the things you use, we make the things you use better." What they ar
e describing is how the improved properties of the clothing, toys, gadgets,
etc., depend on the improved materials from which they are fabricated. With
this perhaps new orientation for your thinking, spend a typical evening watc
hing the TV ads. If you understand materials science, you will even be able
to figure out what the difference between "regular" beer and "ice brewed" be
er really is (hint - see the section on isomorphous phase diagrams in Chapte
r 9).
The key materials relationship
In any course or textbook, there are a few generalizations and themes that f
orm the bedrock for all the rest. In materials, this underlying truth is:
Material properties depend on the material microstructure, which in turn res
ults from its composition and processing.
or, more succinctly
Properties <-- Microstructure <-- Processing
Properties is a category that includes quite a few different things. Many en
gineers will be inclined to think first of mechanical strength, or ductility
, or impact resistance (all of which are defined and the measurement methods
illustrated in Chapter 6). Sometimes, this includes such behavior under ext
remes of temperature or other external conditions, as well. But properties a
lso includes electrical and thermal conductivity, optical properties, corros
ion resistance, the ability of the material to be fabricated into complex sh
apes and to be decorated or coated for appearance, and so forth. Properties,
then, are the interface between the requirements of performance and environ
ment and the selection of material by the design engineer.
A simple example may serve to illustrate just how complex this selection pro
cess can be. Consider the need to choose a material for a common cup or vess
el to hold a liquid. Some of the cup materials you can probably find around
your own home include (in no particular order):
Glass
Ceramics, such as:
Earthenware (e.g., a flower pot; earthenwares are porous)
Stoneware (often used in plates and cups, stoneware has closed pores and wil
l not leak)
Porcelain (which has no pores, is stronger, and can be made into thinner pie
ces)
Glazed ceramics (any of the above materials can be coated with a glass {"gla
ze"} either to seal the pores or to decorate the appearance)
Metal, such as
precious metal silver or gold goblets
durable stainless steel drinking cups (like the famous "Sierra Club" cup)
wood (you may not have any wooden mugs around your home, but these were quit
e common a hundred years ago)
Paper (have you used a "swish and spit" cup at the dentist lately?)
Plastic-coated paper (used in many disposable coffee cups, for example)
Plastics, such as
Soft thermoplastics (for instance, as used in Tupperware)
Hard plastics (the drink cups sold at sports events often use these)
Foamed polystyrene (Styrofoam, another widely used coffee cup material).
Probably you can add some others to this list. Which is best? It obviously d
epends upon a number of factors:
Cost (Consider the cost of the material and of the equipment needed to fabri
cate it, and perhaps the cost of disposal.)
Life (Is this a one-time-use cup, or a permanent object.)
Durability (Are resistance to dents, ability to wash it in the dishwasher, a
nd resistance to tarnishing factors to consider?)
Appearance (Does the cup have decorative value? Does that come from finely m
olded detail or from the lavish use of color?)
The nature of the liquid to be held (Hot coffee in a paper cup, or worse yet
in a metal one, will burn fingers; the insulating properties of the Styrofo
am cup are excellent. Likewise, an antique pewter goblet shouldn't be used f
or orange juice, which may leach out the lead in the alloy.)
Balancing these factors against the properties of the available materials is
the typical role of the design engineer. Expanding the list of choices is t
he role of the materials scientist.
Microstructure and processing history
Since the properties of materials arise from the microstructure, we have to
define what that means. It includes structure at dimensions ranging from the
atoms in the material and the order (or lack of it) of their arrangement, u
p to the tiny grains of individual crystals that pack together to form most
solids, and even up to the nearly macroscopic level of fibers in paper, sand
in concrete, and the thin multiple layers of plastic, metal and paper in a
microwave popcorn bag.
It is common in courses such as this one to start at the smallest scale, tha
t of the atoms. Some familiarity with atoms and the bonds that form between
them should be retained from chemistry courses, but perhaps not much of that
has dealt with solids, as compared to liquids and gases (and most engineeri
ng materials are used in solid form). It may seem abstract and remote from r
eal "engineering" to start at the atomic level and then gradually work up th
rough the ways that atoms pack together (and the important defects in these
packings) to larger dimensions, but this approach provides the necessary too
ls to understand and deal with the later topics.
For many real materials, the formation of the microstructure begins with som
e combination of elements or mixing together of the proper components, often
in liquid form. As this mixture solidifies, different structures form as a
function of temperature. The phase diagrams that provide a road map to these
structures are a second necessary tool for understanding the microstructure
, and the effect of thermal processing of materials. Mechanical processing i
s also used either to directly control the material properties (for example
by altering the grain structure, or the presence of defects in the atom pack
ing) or to fabricate the material into the desired shape. Materials may be f
abricated into objects in a variety of ways, including casting into a mold,
machining to remove extra material, joining parts (e.g., by soldering or wel
ding), forming (forging, rolling, bending, etc.), or compacting particles wh
ich are then fused together (sintering, used for both metal powders and most
ceramics). These operations also modify the final microstructure and must b
e taken into account.
Together, these processing operations determine the properties of the materi
als we use. The control of processing operations is hardly a new feat of eng
ineering. There are many ancient examples of highly sophisticated materials
in which careful addition of minor components and the subtle control of micr
ostructure through processing can be discerned. Glass from ancient Egypt, ce
ramics from the Greeks and the Anasazi Indians, metal swords from ancient Ja
pan, are but a few examples. Developing these techniques must have required
careful observation and painstaking experimentation by skilled artisans. Pas
sing the technology on required an extended apprenticeship system, and relia
nce on recipes and rules to maintain consistency.
Modern science and technology have brought two things to this process. First
is a more complete understanding of the processes, and their effects on the
microstructure. Second are the necessary instruments to control the process
and examine the microstructure. The light microscope has been used to study
material structure for a few hundred years, followed by x-ray diffraction,
the electron microscope, and a whole host of new instruments which are now b
eing developed and used to learn new things about microstructure and its con
trol. Also, test procedures for measuring material properties and predicting
their service performance are now fairly well standardized and serve to ens
ure much greater consistency than was possible before.
Much remains to be done, of course. The explosive or exponential growth of t
echnology, the rapid development of new materials, and even new classes of m
aterials, is ongoing. But the generalization that properties depend on micro
structure, and microstructure results from processing, will provide a basis
for using new types of measurements to understand as-yet undiscovered materi
als.
Classes of materials
It is convenient to classify materials into broad categories for study. Many
of the common characteristics of materials within a category arise from the
lowest level of structure, the nature of the atomic bond that holds them to
gether, and these similarities are aids to organizing our knowledge. The tra
ditional classifications are:
Metals
Ceramics (and glasses, which are usually made up of the same elements but wi
th a different atomic arrangement)
Polymers (or "plastics" to use the more common name)
Composites (which combine several materials to achieve unique or economical
combinations of properties.)
Some people (mostly those who use them) also distinguish electronic material
s (semiconductors) as a separate class. The properties of these various clas
ses of materials are usually rather distinct. For instance, metals are opaqu
e to light, and reflective. They are (usually) ductile, meaning that they ca
n be bent before they break. They are electrically and thermally conducting.
On the other hand ceramics and glasses are usually brittle, can be transpar
ent to light, and are good insulators. They are particularly useful at high
temperatures or in corrosive environments, since they retain their propertie
s. Most polymers, on the other hand, cannot withstand high temperatures. Mos
t are insulators, and many are highly deformable (which is the real meaning
of the word "plastic"), and some have unique elastic properties (rubber band
s). Semiconductors, of course, are distinguished by their electrical behavio
r. All of these property characteristics, and the reasons they exist, are di
scussed in some detail in the chapters that follow.
It will be important to understand the differences between these classes of
materials, and how they arise from the nature of the atomic bonds and the mi
crostructure. But it will also be important to recognize that comparisons ar
e only meaningful based on similar measurement procedures. For example, mech
anical strength and ductility, sensitivity to the presence of cracks, and cr
eep at high temperatures are measured in the same ways for all classes of ma
terials (of course, a "high" temperature for a polymer is much lower than it
is for a ceramic). The response of the materials to these tests is describe
d in a consistent way, using the same mathematical relationships and the sam
e procedures for calculation.
One recurring theme in this course will be the Arrhenius relationship, which
describes the change in many properties and characteristics with temperatur
e. It applies to diffusion rates, creep at high temperatures, viscosity of l
iquids, electrical conductivity in insulators and semiconductors, and more.
It will obviously be to the student's advantage to master the arithmetic of
dealing with this relationship. But it will also be important to understand
that the reason this same expression appears so many times is that there is
an idea behind it that has a general validity. There is an "activation energ
y" needed to cause many processes to occur, and the energy to overcome that
barrier is obtained from thermal energy.
Navigating ViMS web
Neither this WWW server nor the CD version are simply a reformatting of a co
nventional textbook. They are both more and less. There are far fewer words
(and many more pictures) than a book. Most textbooks contain a lot of words
and ideas, and the huge amount of material, much of it quite new to the stud
ent, makes it difficult to extract and abstract the important key ideas in e
ach chapter. Many times, I have had students show me their book and the high
lighting they use to mark what they have identified as the key ideas. Someti
mes nearly half of each page is highlighted! I tell them that a successful a
pproach to studying the material is to create an outline of no more than one
page - preferably much less - per chapter. That should suffice to summarize
the key points and organize the information for study.
This version is in a way just those highlights. By using only a few cards pe
r chapter and a few ideas per card, the key points are emphasized and organi
zed. Some of the depth of discussion possible in the book is therefore missi
ng. Reading words from a computer screen is not as comfortable as a book, in
any case. On the other hand, the computer presents possibilities for illust
ration that the book cannot match. Most engineering students certainly (and
probably most students generally) are primarily visual learners for whom a t
ext description of something is less effective than images, particularly mov
ing images. With this server, presentation of those moving images becomes po
ssible.
There are more than 600 illustrations on this site consisting of "Quicktime"
movies. Some were made by digitizing video clips taken in real-world or lab
oratory settings, others are animations and visualizations produced by the c
omputer, and still others are sequences of "cartoons" that illustrate partic
ular points. Each is intended to illustrate and clarify one particular idea.
The cards are organized by idea and illustrated by movies.
Navigation controls are explained by clicking on the Help icon on the title
page, but basically consist of selecting topics from the table of contents o
r the index (or perhaps moving linearly through a chapter by scrolling). On
each page, icons act as buttons to proceed to other cards or to call up grap
hics. You can also click on any underlined boldface word in the text for the
same kinds of interaction.
In studying the material, you can go as fast or as slow as you need. For rev
iew, just clicking through the cards will present all of the main ideas succ
inctly and allow you to decide whether your level of understanding is suffic
ient. If there is a topic you don't feel comfortable with, use the graphics
and related cards to dig deeper for understanding. There is also an index th
at will lead you to related topics, in case you need more background informa
tion.
This WWW server may also be interesting and useful for "just browsing." You
can follow any thread of ideas across the entire volume of information, much
more rapidly than trying to find various pages in a book, and with the abil
ity to go back easily to recent pages. Perhaps this capability will be usefu
l to gain an overall understanding of what materials science and engineering
is all about, or to select which parts of it are most interesting to you pe
rsonally.
Welcome to this interactive introductory guide to the fascinating world of m
aterials. I hope you enjoy using it as much as my students and I have enjoye
d creating it.
John_Russ@ncsu.edu
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Copyright ? 1995 John C. Russ
Materials Science and Engineering Dept.
North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh NC
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