philosophy 版 (精华区)
发信人: thwinson (新世纪孤独), 信区: philosophy
标 题: 3
发信站: 听涛站 (Wed Jan 3 11:14:33 2001), 转信
refore as labour is a creator of use value, is useful labour, it is a necess
ary condition, independent of all forms of society, for the existence of the
human race; it is an eternal nature-imposed necessity, without which there
can be no material exchanges between man and Nature, and therefore no life.
The use values, coat, linen, etc., i.e., the bodies of commodities, are comb
inations of two elements -- matter and labour. If we take away the useful la
bour expended upon them, a material substratum. is always left, which is fur
nished by Nature without the help of man. The latter can work only as Nature
does, that is by changing the form of matter.(12*) Nay more, in this work o
f changing the form he is constantly helped by natural forces. We see, then,
that labour is not the only source of material wealth, of use-values produc
ed by labour. As William Petty puts it, labour is its father and the earth i
ts mother.
Let us no pass from the commodity considered as a use- value to the value of
commodities.
By our assumption, the coat is worth twice as much as the linen. But this is
a mere quantitative difference, which for the present does not concern us.
We bear in mind, however, that if the value of the coat is double that of 10
yds. of linen, 20 yds. of linen must have the same value as one coat. So fa
r as they are values, the coat and the linen are things of a like substance,
objective expressions of essentially identical labour. But tailoring and we
aving are, qualitatively, different kinds of labour. There are, however, sta
tes of society in which one and the same man does tailoring and weaving alte
rnately, in which case these two forms of labour are mere modifications of t
he labour of the same individual, and no special and fixed functions of diff
erent persons; just as the coat which our tailor makes one day, and the trou
sers which he makes another day, imply only a variations in the labour of on
e and the same individual. Moreover, we see at a glance that in our capitali
st society, a given portion of human labour is, in accordance with the varyi
ng demand, at one time supplied in the form of tailoring, at another in the
form of weaving. This change may possibly not take place without friction, b
ut take it must.
Productive activity, if we leave out of sight its special form, viz., the us
eful character of the labour, is nothing but the expenditure of human labour
-power. Tailoring and weaving, though qualitatively different productive act
ivities, are each a productive expenditure of human brains, nerves, and musc
les, and in this sense are human labour. They are but two different modes of
expending human labour-power. Of course, this labour-power, which remains t
he same under all its modifications, must have attained a certain pitch of d
evelopment before it can be expended in a multiplicity of modes. But the val
ue of a commodity represents human labour in the abstract, the expenditure o
f human labour in general. And just as in society, a general or a banker pla
ys a great part, but mere man, on the other hand, a very shabby part,(13*) s
o here with mere human labour. It is the expenditure of simple labour power,
i.e., of the labour-power which, on an average, apart from any special deve
lopment, exists in the organism of every ordinary individual. Simple average
labour, it is true, varies in character in different countries and at diffe
rent times, but in a particular society it is given. Skilled labour counts o
nly as simple labour intensified, or rather, as multiplied simple labour, a
given quantity of skilled being considered equal to a greater quantity of si
mple labour. Experience shows that this reduction is constantly being made.
A commodity may be the product of the most skilled labour, but its value. by
equating it to the product of simple unskilled labour, represents a definit
e quantity of the latter labour alone.(14*) The different proportions in whi
ch different sorts of labour are reduced to unskilled labour as their standa
rd, are established by a social process that goes on behind the backs of the
producers, and, consequently, appear to be fixed by custom. For simplicity'
s sake we shall henceforth account every kind of labour to be unskilled, sim
ple labour; by this we do no more than save ourselves the trouble of making
the reduction.
Just as, therefore, in viewing the coat and linen as values, we abstract fro
m their different use values, so it is with the labour represented by those
values; we disregard the difference between its useful forms, weaving and ta
iloring. As the use-values, coat and linen, are combinations of special prod
uctive activities with cloth and yarn, while the values, coat and linen, are
, on the other hand, mere homogeneous congelations of undifferentiated labou
r, so the labour embodied in these latter values does not count by virtue of
its productive relation to cloth and yarn, but only as being expenditure of
human labour-power. Tailoring and weaving are necessary factors in the crea
tion of the use-values, coat an linen, precisely because these two kinds of
labour are of different qualities; but only in so far as abstraction is made
from their special qualities, only in so far as both possess the same quali
ty of being human labour, do tailoring and weaving form the substance of the
values of the same articles.Coats and linen, however, are not merely values
, but values of definite magnitude, and according to our assumption, the coa
t is worth twice as much as the ten yards of linen. Whence this difference i
n their values? It is owing to the fact that the linen contains only half as
much labour as the coat, and consequently, that in the production of the la
tter, labour-power must have been expended during twice the time necessary f
or the production of the former.While, therefore, with reference to use-valu
e, the labour contained in a commodity counts only qualitatively, with refer
ence to value it counts only quantitatively, and must first be reduced to hu
man labour pure and simple. In the former case, it is a question of How and
What, in the latter of How much? How long a time? Since the magnitude of the
value of a commodity represents only the quantity of labour embodied in it,
it follows that all commodities, when taken in certain proportions, must be
equal in value.If the productive power of all the different sorts of useful
labour required for the production of a coat remains unchanged, the sum of
the values of the coats produced increases with their number. If one coat re
presents x days' labour, two coats represent 2x days' labour, and so on. But
assume that the duration of the labour necessary for the production of a co
at becomes doubled or halved. In the first case, one coat is worth as much a
s two coats were before; in the second case, two coats are only worth as muc
h as one was before, although in both cases one coat renders the same servic
e as before, and the useful labour embodied in it remains of the same qualit
y. But the quantity of labour spent on its production has altered.An increas
e in the quantity of use-values is an increase of material wealth. With two
coats two men can be clothed, with one coat only one man. Nevertheless, an i
ncreased quantity of material wealth may correspond to a simultaneous fall i
n the magnitude of its value. This antagonistic movement has its origin in t
he two-fold character of labour. Productive power has reference, of course,
only to labour of some useful concrete form; the efficacy of any special pro
ductive activity during a given time being dependent on its productiveness.
Useful labour becomes, therefore, a more or less abundant source of products
, in proportion to the rise or fall of its productiveness. On the other hand
, no change in this productiveness affects the labour represented by value.
Since productive power is an attribute of the concrete useful forms of labou
r, of course it can no longer have any bearing on that labour, so soon as we
make abstraction from those concrete useful forms. However then productive
power may vary, the same labour, exercised during equal periods of time, alw
ays yields equal amounts of value. But it will yield, during equal periods o
f time, different quantities of values in use; more, if the productive power
rise, fewer, if it fall. The same change in productive power, which increas
es the fruitfulness of labour, and, in consequence, the quantity of use-valu
es produced by that labour, will diminish the total value of this increased
quantity of use-values, provided such change shorten the total labour-time n
ecessary for their production; and vice versa.
On the one hand all labour is, speaking physiologically, an expenditure of h
uman labour power, and in its character of identical abstract human labour,
it creates and forms the value of commodities. On the other hand, all labour
is the expenditure of human labour-power in a special form and with a defin
ite aim, and in this, its character of concrete useful labour, it produces u
se-values.(15*)
Section 3 -- The Form of Value or Exchange-ValueCommodities come into the wo
rld in the shape of use-values, articles, or goods, such as iron, linen, cor
n, etc. This is their plain, homely, bodily form. They are, however, commodi
ties, only because they are something two-fold, both objects of utility, and
, at the same time, depositories of value. The manifest themselves therefore
as commodities, or have the form of commodities, only in so far as they hav
e two forms, a physical or natural form, and a value-form.
The reality of the value of commodities differs in this respect from Dame Qu
ickly, that we don't know "where to have it." The value of commodities is th
e very opposite of the coarse materiality of their substance, not an atom of
matter enters into its composition. Turn and examine a single commodity, by
itself, as we will, yet in so far as it remains an object of value, it seem
s impossible to grasp it. If, however, we bear in mind that the value of com
modities has a purely social reality, and that they acquire this reality onl
y in so far as they are expressions or embodiments of one identical social s
ubstance, viz., human labour, it follows as a matter of course, that value c
an only manifest itself in the social relation of commodity to commodity. In
fact we started from exchange-value, or the exchange relation of commoditie
s, in order to get at the value that lies hidden behind it. We must now retu
rn to this form under which value first appeared to us.
Every one knows, if he knows nothing else, that commodities have a value for
m common to them all, and presenting a marked contrast with the varied bodil
y forms of their use-values. I mean their money-form. Here, however, a task
is set us, the
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别梦依依到谢家
小廊回合曲阑斜
多情只有春庭月
犹为离人照落花
爱与不爱是最痛苦的徘徊※ 来源:.听涛站 cces.net.[FROM: 匿名天使的家]
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